Is there another beverage in the world that has driven so many people to passion, and simultaneously generated so much conflict? Coffee is said to be consumed roughly two billion times per day worldwide. As the second most traded commodity after oil, its economic scale reaches into the hundreds of billions of dollars. Yet these numbers say nothing about what coffee truly is.Coffee came to be called "black blood" not only for its color. It was once the fuel of revolution. On the eve of the French Revolution, citizens gathered in Parisian cafés to vent their rage before marching on the Bastille. In English coffee houses, merchants exchanged information as the seeds of modern capitalism took root. In the Ottoman Empire, sultans issued bans on coffee, and citizens drank on in defiance. Wherever coffee flowed, something moved. It was like blood coursing through the veins of society itself.This is why coffee transcends the category of mere preference. Around it swirl cultural pride, economic exploitation, the shadow of colonialism, environmental destruction, and an ongoing struggle between quality and ethics. In a single cup, all of humanity's desires, intelligence, and contradictions are concentrated.This essay traces coffee's history from its origins to the present day, examining—with data, facts, and analysis—why this drink has continued to generate such diverse values and conflicts. Drinking coffee is not simply an act of waking oneself up. It is, unknowingly, an act of joining a chain of human desire and struggle stretching across centuries.Chapter 1The Birth of Coffee and the Stigma of the "Forbidden Drink"Coffee's origins reach back more than a thousand years to Ethiopia. According to legend, around the 9th century, a goatherd named Kaldi noticed his goats behaving with strange excitement after eating red berries from a particular tree. When he ate the berries himself, his body felt lighter, his drowsiness vanished, and he experienced a curious elation. He brought the berries to a nearby monastery, where monks brewed them into a drink and found they could remain awake through their evening prayers.This is legend, of course, but it is botanically confirmed that the Kaffa region of Ethiopia—sometimes cited as the etymological root of the English word "coffee"—is the plant's homeland. Coffea arabica grows wild in the highland forests of Ethiopia, and wild coffee trees continue to be discovered there to this day. A 2020 report from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) found that roughly 60% of wild coffee species are now threatened with extinction due to climate change, with most distributed across Ethiopia and Madagascar. The fact that the birthplace of humanity's most beloved beverage is now disappearing is deeply sobering.Coffee as a drink emerged in 15th-century Yemen. Sufi monks drank it to ward off drowsiness during long periods of prayer and meditation. The method was similar to today's Arabian coffee—roasted beans simmered in water. In Arabic the drink was called qahwa (قهوة), a word that also referred to wine. Though it contained no alcohol, coffee occupied a parallel position to wine as a drink that altered consciousness and elevated the spirit.From the late 15th century onward, coffee culture spread rapidly from the Arabian Peninsula. In 1475, what is considered the world's first coffee shop, Kaf Nes, reportedly opened in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). These establishments were not merely places to drink. They were spaces for gathering, debating, exchanging information, reciting poetry, playing chess, and discussing politics. In the Ottoman Empire they were called "schools of wisdom"—a vital social infrastructure even for those who could not read, as information could be obtained through conversation.Yet it was precisely this sociable space that generated the first conflicts. People gathering and exchanging ideas freely was a threat to those in power. In 1511, the governor of Mecca, Khair Beg, issued a prohibition on coffee. His stated justifications were partly medical—some Islamic scholars questioned whether coffee, as a charred substance, was halal—but the real reason was that coffee houses had become sites of political criticism.The ban was soon reversed, but prohibitions on coffee would be repeated across the world. Around 1600, Pope Clement VIII reportedly received appeals from advisors to forbid Christians from drinking it—"This is the devil's drink," they argued. When the Pope tasted it himself, however, he found it so delicious that he reportedly declared it would be a shame to leave such a pleasure to the devil alone, and gave it his blessing. In 1675, England's King Charles II ordered coffee houses closed, calling them "nests of idleness and slander, hotbeds of political rebellion." The order was reversed eleven days later in the face of fierce public resistance. In 1777, Prussia's Frederick the Great issued a strict edict restricting coffee on economic grounds, arguing that imports were draining national wealth and damaging the domestic beer industry.What the history of these bans reveals is that coffee was never merely a drink—it was a social force. It woke people up, gathered them together, made them speak, made them think. It was perpetually inconvenient to power. Every time coffee was banned and people resisted, their defense of the right to drink coffee overlapped with a broader demand for freedom.The chemistry of coffee supports this image of awakening and revolution. Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors to suppress drowsiness, but it also stimulates dopamine release, elevating mood, sharpening focus, and increasing sociability. When people gathered over coffee, they debated more vigorously, thought more acutely, acted more boldly. It may be no coincidence that the Enlightenment flowered in 18th-century Europe in the very coffee houses where citizens argued by the power of caffeine.Coffee's journey from Ethiopia to Yemen, the Ottoman Empire, and Europe was not merely the transmission of a drink. It was the transmission of the idea of the awakened citizen.Chapter 2Colonialism and the Coffee PlantationThe history of coffee, beneath its beguiling aroma, carries some of the most brutal records of exploitation in human history. When coffee became a global commodity in the 17th and 18th centuries, its production was sustained by slavery and colonialism—a context indispensable for understanding the structural problems of today's coffee industry.Until the 16th century, Yemen held a near-monopoly on coffee production. The coffee exported from the port of Mocha (present-day Al-Mukha) commanded high prices worldwide, and Yemen tightly controlled the export of seeds, shipping only roasted beans or grounds. It was the Dutch who broke this monopoly. In the early 17th century, merchants of the Dutch East India Company smuggled coffee seedlings out of Yemen, successfully cultivated them in Amsterdam's botanical gardens by 1616, began growing them in Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) by 1658, and expanded to Java in 1699. The quality of Javanese coffee was so high that "Java" remains an English slang term for coffee to this day.In 1714, the Dutch gifted a coffee seedling to France's Louis XIV. France brought it to the Caribbean island of Martinique in 1723, and from this single plant, coffee cultivation spread across the Caribbean and throughout Latin America. By the end of the 19th century, Brazil accounted for more than 70% of global coffee production.The engine behind this explosive expansion was terrifying in its reality. The Caribbean and Latin American coffee plantations were run on enslaved African labor. French Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) produced roughly 40% of the world's coffee in the late 18th century, sustained by approximately 500,000 enslaved Africans whose average life expectancy on the plantation was said to be just seven years from the start of their labor.The Haitian Revolution of 1791—in which enslaved people overthrew French colonial rule and established the world's first Black republic—was a revolution by coffee plantation slaves. "Black blood" flowed literally. Yet after Haitian independence, France demanded 150 million francs in reparations to compensate slaveholders for their "lost property." This astronomical debt kept Haiti economically bound well into the 20th century. The wealth generated by coffee continued to flow to the former colonial power even after revolution.Brazil did not abolish slavery until 1888—the last country in the Western Hemisphere to do so—because enslaved labor formed the backbone of its coffee economy. In the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia), the Netherlands enforced a "Cultivation System" (cultuurstelsel) from 1830 to 1870, compelling farmers to devote a fifth of their land or labor to government-mandated crops including coffee. The system generated enormous profit for the Dutch while causing mass famines in Java, killing hundreds of thousands.The inequality ran deeper than the plantation. Producing countries exported raw materials cheaply while consuming countries processed and sold coffee at high prices—the "commodity trap" that bound coffee-producing nations to chronic poverty. The pattern has not fundamentally changed. According to 2023 data from the International Coffee Organization (ICO), the major producing countries—Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia—are all developing or emerging economies, while the major consuming nations are wealthy ones.The value chain makes the disparity vivid. A latte at Starbucks in Japan costs roughly 600–700 yen. The coffee beans used in a typical double shot amount to about 14 grams. At a farm-gate price of roughly 200–400 yen per kilogram for Ethiopian beans, those 14 grams represent just 3–6 yen reaching the farmer—less than 1% of the retail price. The rest flows to transport, processing, roasting, store operations, marketing, and branding—overwhelmingly to businesses and workers in consuming countries.Fair Trade coffee attempts to correct this imbalance through minimum price guarantees and social premiums. Yet critics point out that certification costs burden farmers, that the actual impact on living standards is difficult to verify, and that higher prices paid by consumers do not necessarily reach the grower. A 2022 study from Loughborough University found no statistically significant difference in income between Fair Trade and non-Fair Trade coffee farmers—a finding that keeps the debate alive.The exploitative structure built by colonialism persists today, transformed in form. Where once it took the shape of slavery and forced cultivation, it now takes the form of unequal trade terms and market asymmetry. Behind the black blood, someone's tears and sweat and blood have always been mixed in.Chapter 3From Coffee House to the Third Wave — The Transformation of Culture and ConsumptionThe social role and form of coffee consumption have changed dramatically over time. The 17th-century English coffee house—where men of all social classes could enter for a penny and stay as long as they wished, reading newspapers and joining debates—was called the "Penny University" because even those without formal education could gain knowledge and information there. By 1700, London had roughly 2,000 coffee houses. Edward Lloyd's became the foundation of Lloyd's of London insurance market; Jonathan's Coffee House evolved into the London Stock Exchange.In France, the Café de Procope, opened in Paris in 1686, was an intellectual salon of the Enlightenment—a regular haunt of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot. The night before the French Revolution, Camille Desmoulins reportedly delivered an incendiary speech at the Café de Foy that drove the crowd toward the Bastille. In Vienna, the coffee house became a "cultural institution" frequented by Freud, Trotsky, Lenin, Arthur Schnitzler, and Gustav Klimt—a list that reads like a who's who of 20th-century civilization. Viennese coffee house culture is now a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.In America, coffee took a different path—one of mass consumption rather than intellectual refinement. During the Civil War, Union soldiers consumed it in vast quantities in the field. The 20th century brought instant coffee: Nestlé launched Nescafé in 1938, supplied it to Allied forces in massive quantities during World War II, and the returning soldiers brought the habit home. In the culture of abundance and convenience that followed, coffee became increasingly a drink of quantity.The symbol of this era is Starbucks, founded in Seattle in 1971. After Howard Schultz joined in the 1980s and pivoted toward an Italian-espresso-inspired experience, the company went public in 1992 and expanded at a breathtaking pace. By 2024, it operated roughly 36,000 locations in over 80 countries.Yet Starbucks's success also generated a new cultural opposition: the "Third Wave" of specialty coffee. The framework of coffee "waves" was proposed by writer Trish Rothgeb in 2002. The First Wave (19th–early 20th century) was the era of mass production—Folgers, Maxwell House—when coffee was consumed as a functional tool for waking up. The Second Wave was Starbucks's era, in which experience and brand took precedence over quality. Critics noted that Starbucks beans were over-roasted, destroying the complex flavors inherent to the bean.The Third Wave, beginning in the 2000s, treats coffee as a high-quality agricultural product to be differentiated by origin, farmer, variety, and processing method—much as wine is. Specialty coffee, defined by the Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) as scoring 80 or above on a 100-point quality scale, emphasizes direct trade with farmers, transparent supply chains, light roasting to highlight delicate flavors, and the specialist expertise of the barista. It redefined coffee as a high culture.Japan's coffee culture followed its own trajectory while deeply intertwined with these global currents. The kissaten (traditional Japanese café) culture that flourished from the Taisho era through the postwar decades served as a "third place" in Japanese society—a space for business meetings, dates, and solitary relaxation. At its peak in the 1970s–80s, Japan had roughly 150,000 such establishments. The arrival of Starbucks in the 2000s and the rise of convenience store coffee dealt the traditional kissaten a severe blow, and their numbers have since fallen to less than half their peak. Yet specialty coffee shops have grown in Tokyo, Kyoto, and elsewhere, cultivating a younger generation focused on flavor itself. According to 2023 data from the All Japan Coffee Association, Japan's per capita annual coffee consumption is approximately 3.4 kilograms, placing it among the world's highest.The tension between coffee's "democratization" and its "aristocratization" plays out simultaneously: a single cup of specialty coffee can exceed 3,000 yen at the high end, while convenience store coffee at 100 yen sells over a billion cups a year. The value fissure between them is a mirror of contemporary consumer culture.Chapter 4The Triangle of Price, Quality, and EthicsThe global coffee industry's market size was estimated at approximately $450 billion in 2023, with projections reaching $600 billion by 2028. Yet the distribution of this value remains profoundly unequal. According to a 2021 World Coffee Research report, only 10–15% of the value generated across the entire coffee value chain accrues to producing countries; 85–90% remains in consuming countries.Coffee farmers' incomes in many countries fall below the minimum standard of living. Multiple studies by the International Labour Organization and agricultural policy research institutions indicate that in major producing countries including Colombia, Ethiopia, and Vietnam, coffee farmers typically earn between $1 and $3 per day—near or below the World Bank's extreme poverty line of $1.90. In 2023, Starbucks CEO Lakshmanan Narasimhan received total annual compensation of approximately $14 million. The economic chasm between the top and bottom of the coffee industry is staggering.The extreme volatility of international coffee prices compounds this difficulty. Prices are traded on commodity exchanges—Arabica on the New York Mercantile Exchange, Robusta on the London International Financial Futures Exchange—and fluctuate sharply with climate events, currency movements, and speculative trading. Between 2021 and 2022, drought and frost in Brazil drove Arabica prices above $2.40 per pound, a near 10-year high. Whether farmers benefit from such surges depends largely on contract terms with cooperatives and intermediaries, and there is considerable lag before spot market prices are reflected at the farm gate.The Ethiopia-Starbucks conflict of 2005–2007 crystallized the contest over "origin" as value. The Ethiopian government sought to trademark the names of its iconic coffee origins—Yirgacheffe, Sidamo, Harar—in the United States, aiming to protect farmers' livelihoods by ensuring these names commanded premiums. Starbucks, which was already selling coffee under these names, strongly opposed the move, as a successful trademark would require paying licensing fees to the Ethiopian government. An Oxfam campaign brought the issue to global consumers, and under pressure, Starbucks eventually reached a licensing agreement in 2007, committing to respect and market Ethiopian origin names properly. The episode demonstrated that coffee's origins and names can become a battlefield between farmers' rights and corporate commercial interests.The Third Wave contains its own internal contradictions. "Direct trade," with no standardized definition or third-party certification, relies on self-reporting. Critics argue that much "direct trade" specialty coffee still passes through intermediaries, and that the narrative of direct relationships with farmers does not always reflect reality. The phenomenon of specialty coffee shops acting as "gentrification scouts"—their arrival in low-income urban neighborhoods correlating with rising rents and the displacement of existing residents and small businesses—has been documented in American, British, and Japanese cities alike.The triangle of price, quality, and ethics offers no clean answers. Seeking cheap, convenient coffee pressures farmers' incomes. Seeking high-quality coffee can support better compensation for farmers—but this is not guaranteed. Ethical consumption through certifications has real but contested impact. It is precisely because no clear answer exists within this triangle that the debate around coffee never ends.Chapter 5Climate Change—The Greatest ThreatThe greatest crisis facing coffee today is climate change. This is not simply an environmental story. It is a story about the daily lives of billions of people, the livelihoods of millions of farmers, and the continuity of a culture more than five centuries old.Coffea arabica, which accounts for roughly 60% of global coffee production, requires a highly specific climate: annual temperatures of 18–24°C, annual rainfall of 1,500–2,000 millimeters, elevations of 600–2,000 meters, and a clear distinction between dry and wet seasons. These overlapping conditions define the "coffee belt"—the zone within roughly 30 degrees of latitude on either side of the equator. Climate change is rapidly shrinking it.A 2021 study published in PLOS ONE found that climate change may eliminate more than 50% of suitable growing land for Arabica by 2050. In Brazil, Colombia, and Central America, rising temperatures are rendering current growing elevations "unsuitable," and farmers face the choice of moving to higher altitudes—where many mountains are already near the tree line with no room for agricultural expansion—or abandoning cultivation altogether.In Ethiopia, the situation is particularly acute. As the homeland of wild coffee, Ethiopia is losing the genetic diversity that could hold the key to climate-resilient varieties. The IUCN's 2020 survey classified 60% of wild coffee species as threatened with extinction. Farmers in the Kaffa region report significantly declining productivity compared to 20 years ago, with irregular rainfall onset, lengthening dry seasons, and unpredictable weather disrupting harvests.Coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix)—a fungal disease once contained by cooler high-altitude temperatures—is now spreading to higher elevations as temperatures rise. The 2012–13 outbreak across Central America caused production declines of 20–40% in Guatemala, Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Mexico, accelerating rural impoverishment. Estimates from agricultural ministries suggest over 500,000 agricultural workers lost their livelihoods in that single outbreak.Brazil's 2021 season illustrates the volatility of the new climate reality: frost in the summer growing season and drought during the dry season—a combination attributed to destabilized weather patterns—caused Arabica production to fall roughly 30% year-on-year, triggering the international price surge described above.Responses being developed include climate-resilient variety breeding—drawing on Ethiopia's wild coffee gene banks—and a revival of shade-grown cultivation, which lowers local temperatures, improves soil moisture retention, and provides habitat for birds that prey on coffee pests. The "F1 hybrid" varieties released around 2020 reportedly show 20–50% higher yields than traditional varieties with stronger resistance to leaf rust, and are being adopted by farmers across Central America.The most pessimistic scenarios envision that by 2050, quality Arabica cultivation will become impossible in many current growing regions, costs will rise sharply, and coffee will become a luxury accessible only to the wealthy. Blue Bottle Coffee's projections, reported by the Financial Times in 2023, paint a stark picture of what may be lost. Whether this scenario materializes depends on the choices of consumers, the investments of companies, the policies of governments, and the success of international climate action. Every cup of coffee is, in a small way, a vote in that outcome.Chapter 6Coffee Culture in the Digital AgeThe 21st century has fundamentally transformed coffee culture through the internet and social media. The function that coffee houses once served—as spaces for the exchange of information and debate—has migrated to online platforms, and the nature of the discourse has changed accordingly.Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube brought an intense pressure toward visual spectacle. "Photogenic" coffee—beautiful latte art, vibrantly colored fruit coffees, elaborate glassware presentations—gained primacy. By 2023, the hashtag #coffee on Instagram exceeded 100 million posts. Trends now propagate globally in weeks: the South Korean dalgona coffee (whipped instant coffee) went viral on TikTok during the COVID-19 lockdowns of 2020 and was being made in homes worldwide within days. Espresso tonic, fruit coffee, protein coffee (the "clatd latté") followed in successive years.Specialists in coffee frequently criticize this "viral coffee culture" for prioritizing visual impact over quality and cultural context. The evaluation criteria for coffee—what makes coffee "good"—are being shaped by social media algorithms rather than by expertise or tradition.YouTube and podcasts have, on the other hand, genuinely democratized coffee knowledge. Information once available only to professional baristas—processing methods (washed, natural, honey process), the flavor profiles of different origins, optimal extraction temperatures—is now freely accessible. Hundreds of Japanese YouTube channels cover coffee extraction and origins in detail, some with hundreds of thousands of subscribers.Some speak of a "Fourth Wave"—an approach combining the specialty coffee philosophy of the Third Wave with precision technology (IoT sensors for farm management, machine learning for extraction optimization, blockchain for real-time transparency of farmer income). Whether or not the "wave" framework captures all of coffee culture—it was conceived primarily from an American vantage point, after all—the direction of travel is toward greater data-driven precision and consumer-facing transparency.The rise of the "home barista" during the pandemic lockdowns stands out as a defining shift. High-performance espresso machines, precision grinders, digital scales, and thermometers once confined to professional settings entered ordinary households. According to De'Longhi's 2021 report, sales of home espresso machines globally rose approximately 30–40% in 2020 alone. As consumers became capable of making high-quality coffee at home, what they sought from cafés shifted: no longer just good coffee, but experience, community, and encounters with specialist knowledge—a return, in a sense, to what the original coffee house provided.Medical research on coffee has advanced substantially. A large cohort study published in the European Heart Journal in 2022 found that habitual consumption of two to three cups per day was associated with 10–15% lower risk of cardiovascular disease and lower all-cause mortality compared with non-drinkers. Inverse associations with type 2 diabetes, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease have been reported across multiple studies. At the same time, excessive consumption (more than four cups daily) can elevate risks of anxiety, insomnia, and hypertension, and coffee consumption during pregnancy carries documented risks. On social media, however, nuanced findings are flattened into extreme claims—"coffee is bad" versus "coffee is good"—while "health coffee" trends (butter coffee, mushroom coffee, collagen coffee) market questionable benefits to willing consumers. The information chaos around coffee and health is a vivid illustration of health literacy challenges in the digital age.The most significant change the digital era has brought to coffee culture may be that consumers now carry far more information than before. Origin, farmer, processing method, variety—knowledge once limited to specialists is now within reach of anyone curious enough to look. This democratization of information expands the possibility of ethical consumer choice. Yet the same abundance of information produces paralysis: too many certifications, too many claims, too many competing "best coffees." When the simple act of drinking a cup of coffee demands engagement with questions of environment, ethics, health, and culture, the weight of all those questions can itself become exhausting.EpilogueWhat the Black Blood Tells UsTracing the history of coffee, one encounters what feels like the full panorama of human desire, intelligence, and contradiction. Born as a drink of religious awakening, it became a symbol of freedom by being forbidden. Stained with the blood of colonialism and slavery, it sustained the rise of modern capitalism. It nurtured the debates of civic revolutions. And today it stands on the front lines of climate change, its survival uncertain.Coffee has always existed on boundaries—between wakefulness and sleep, between the sacred and the secular, between domination and freedom, between poverty and wealth, between nature and civilization, between tradition and innovation. At no boundary has it stood on the simple side.The most fundamental question around coffee today is one of sustainability: the shrinking of suitable growing land, the poverty of farmers, deforestation, the loss of biodiversity. Without addressing these, coffee's future is dark. But signs of change are visible: growing consumer interest in quality and origin, movements toward fair compensation through direct and fair trade, the development of climate-resilient varieties, the spread of sustainable farming. These are genuine shifts.And the power that we hold as consumers is not negligible. Of the more than 200 billion cups consumed annually, every single one was chosen by someone. Knowing the origin, knowing the producer, understanding the value embedded in price—each cup of coffee connects to somewhere in the world.Voltaire argued in a coffee house. An African slave sweated on a plantation. A coffee tree flowered on an Ethiopian hillside. And today we lift a cup. In that continuity lies the unfathomable depth of this drink. The black blood still flows. As long as it courses through humanity's veins, coffee will go on writing the human story—with all its beauty, its contradictions, and its conflicts.When you slowly savor a cup, consider that in its complex flavors, centuries of human story have dissolved. The bitterness may be the weight of history. The acidity, the sharpness of critical thought. The sweetness, humanity's wisdom and hope. And the aroma—perhaps the trace of a long journey from a farmer's hands on a distant hillside to this single cup.To drink coffee is to drink the world. And that world is beautiful, unjust, endangered—and still, somehow, full of hope.参考文献Ukers, W. H. (1922). All About Coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company.Pendergrast, M. (1999). Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World. Basic Books.Wild, A. (2004). Coffee: A Dark History. W. W. Norton & Company.Weinberg, B. A., & Bealer, B. K. (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. Routledge.Davis, A. P. et al. (2019). "High extinction risk for wild coffee species and implications for coffee sector sustainability." Science Advances, 5(1).Bunn, C. et al. (2015). "A bitter cup: climate change profile of global production of Arabica and Robusta coffee." Climatic Change, 129(1-2), 89-101.International Coffee Organization (ICO). (2023). Annual Review 2022/23. ICO.Specialty Coffee Association (SCA). (2023). SCA Research Foundation Annual Report. SCA.World Coffee Research. (2021). Annual Report 2021. WCR.Fairtrade International. (2022). Fairtrade and Coffee: Commodity Briefing.Oxfam International. (2007). Grounds for Change: Creating a Market for Fair Trade and Sustainable Coffee. Oxfam.Ponte, S. (2002). "The 'Latte Revolution'? Regulation, Markets and Consumption in the Global Coffee Chain." World Development, 30(7), 1099-1122.Talbot, J. M. (2004). Grounds for Agreement: The Political Economy of the Coffee Commodity Chain. Rowman & Littlefield.Jaffee, D. (2007). Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival. University of California Press.Topik, S., & Gootenberg, P. (2012). The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500-1989. Cambridge University Press.Clarence-Smith, W. G., & Topik, S. (2003). The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500–1989. Cambridge University Press.Roseberry, W. (1996). "The Rise of Yuppie Coffees and the Reimagination of Class in the United States." American Anthropologist, 98(4), 762-775.Spence, C. (2017). "On the art of coffee tasting: What makes coffee taste like coffee?" Flavour, (Coffee special edition).Luttinger, N., & Dicum, G. (2006). The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry from Crop to the Last Drop. New Press.Mintz, S. W. (1985). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. Viking (珈琲との比較的考察として).Neilson, J., & Pritchard, B. (2009). Value Chain Struggles: Institutions and Governance in the Plantation Districts of South India. Wiley-Blackwell.IUCN. (2020). "Over 60% of wild coffee species under threat of extinction." IUCN Red List Media Release.Samper, M., & Fernando, R. (2003). The historical construction of quality and competitiveness: a preliminary discussion of coffee commodity chains. In W. G. Clarence-Smith & S. Topik (Eds.), The Global Coffee Economy.European Heart Journal. (2022). "Coffee drinking and outcomes in patients with and without cardiovascular disease: 2 cohorts with 347,077 individuals." European Journal of Preventive Cardiology.全日本コーヒー協会. (2023). 「コーヒーの需給に関する統計」.農林水産省. (2021). 「熱帯農産品の国際貿易と途上国農家の所得に関する報告書」.World Bank. (2022). "Poverty in a Rising Africa." World Bank Africa Poverty Report.Fairtrade Foundation UK. (2023). Coffee Report 2023.DeLong, T., & Vijayaraghavan, V. (2002). Starbucks' Mission: Social Responsibility and Brand Strength. Harvard Business School Case.Gibson, C. (2021). "Third-wave coffee culture and the politics of taste." Cultural Geographies, 28(3).